Scientific and practical peer-reviewed journal
The Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography of the Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences (Novosibirsk), has been publishing the international peer-reviewed journal Archaeology, Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia since 2000. Each issue is published in parallel Russian and English versions. Each quarterly issue of the journal contains 160 pages of 290 × 205 mm format, including numerous black-and-white and color illustrations.
This periodical is devoted to presentation and analysis of fundamental materials relating to the Archaeology, Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia, including North and Central Asia, Europe, the Pacific Rim, and other regions. The journal is conceived as multidisciplinary. It publishes papers, and maintains discussions on a wide range of research problems, such as Quaternary geology; Pleistocene and Holocene paleoecology; the methodology of archaeological, anthropological and ethnographic studies; information technology; studies of migrations of early populations; paleosociological and paleoeconomic reconstruction; the evolution of the human physical type; modern methods of paleopopulation genetics; prehistoric art; astroarchaeology; studies of the cultures of indigenous populations; and studies of ethnocultural processes. The journal also accepts the results of recent field-investigations conducted by archaeologists, anthropologists, and ethnologists, as well as announcements of symposia and professional meetings.
Archaeology, Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia provides authors with the opportunity to share their ideas and materials with a broad spectrum of professionals, and allows readers to stay current with the most recent issues in the fields of archaeology, ethnology, and anthropology.
The Editorial Council and Editorial Board of the journal include leading scientists from Russia, Asia, Europe, and America.
The Journal is included in:
- the List of peer-reviewed journals, where the main results of doctoral and post-doctoral dissertations are published;
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You can subscribe to the Archaeology, Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia from 2016 by E-mail: rodina@archaeology.nsc.ru
Current issue
PALEOENVIRONMENT. THE STONE AGE
The authors present the results of a technological and functional analysis of bone tubular beads from the Upper Paleolithic layer 11 in the Main Chamber of Denisova Cave, northwestern Altai. Tubular beads are among the most widespread categories of Early Upper Paleolithic ornaments from the cave. The technological sequence of operations has been reconstructed. It included several stages: selection of blank, planing, manufacture of preform by truncating the epiphyses, ornamenting the preform, marking preforms for fracturing into short tubes, sawing or cutting, fragmentation by cuts, removal of cancellous bone, and smoothing the fracture surfaces. Prepared blanks and diagnostic production waste were not noted in the technological context of the complex; this indicates that the tubular beads were probably manufactured outside the excavated area of the Main Chamber. The analyses revealed traces of wear caused by contact with clothing or human skin and by threading on a string or thin strap. Tubular beads were used by the Upper Paleolithic inhabitants of the cave as elements of clothing, necklaces, and probably bracelets. The closest but still considerably distant parallels to the tubular beads from the Altai are Aurignacian ornaments of a similar age from Western, Central, and Eastern Europe.
On the basis of findings of the autumn 2021 field season, we present the first information on the Paleolithic site of Stoilo (Usolsky District of the Irkutsk Region). The site, located on the left bank of the Angara River, belongs to the Belaya geoarchaeological region. The complex is enclosed in pre-Holocene sediments relating to the residual gruspebble crust, which overlies the soliflucion layer tentatively dating to the Late Karga–Early Sartan period. The analysis of the lithics, mostly made on siliceous rocks, indicates prismatic reduction resulting in small blades. The toolkit consists of small pieces, including various types of spurred tools, burins, knives on naturally backed blades, retouched blades and flakes with use-wear, and a heavy-duty pebble tool. A specific feature of the complex is that most artifacts reveal superficial traces of minor corrasion—a weak surface gloss. This and the fact that the material relates to the gruspebble layer might be viewed as formal indicators of the “Makarovo Horizon”. However, the totality of typological and technological features and the structure of the sediments suggest that Stoilo represents the middle stage of the Upper Paleolithic, dating to the Early Sartan stage. To confirm this assumption, further excavations are needed in order to augment the collection and obtain more environmental data.
We give a technological and typological description of two well-preserved points (one fragmented rod-shaped, the other double-slotted), made of mammoth ivory and found in the Ust-Yansky District of Sakha-Yakutia in 2016. Traces evidencing various stages of manufacture are described in detail. A succession of technological operations is reconstructed, from the preparation of preforms and further processing by planing and abrasion to final polishing. Spall negatives on artifacts are interpreted as post-depositional damage that could have occurred from the effect of cryogenic processes in sediments. The slotted specimen is decorated with five finely engraved arrows. The discovery context and the morphology of the rod-shaped specimen are similar to those of ivory points from the Yana sites, whereas the slotted one resembles those from Zhokhovo and other Northeast Asian sites of the same age. Radiocarbon analysis of the points supports these findings. The following conclusions are reached: the rod-shaped point dates to MIS 3, and the slotted one, to MIS 2; such points evidence an elaborate technology of ivory processing during the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene in the high latitudes of Northeast Asia and an adaptation to the scarcity of lithic raw material in the region.
The Early Neolithic site of Rakushechny Yar on the Lower Don evidences successive peopling of the coastal zone in the 6th millennium BC. Analysis of faunal remains, toolkit, and limited technological contexts suggest seasonal orientation of the site shown at least at the early stages. We present the results of the analysis of the Early Neolithic bone tools from Rakushechny Yar layers 23–11 of excavation I, and assess their place in the context of bone industries of the contemporaneous archaeological cultures. The collection is dominated by points. Despite the variable morphology, their preforms and manufacturing techniques are rather standard. Apart from points, two spatula-like tools and two specimens with beveled edges, made from red-deer antler, were found. A limited typological and functional set reveals a peculiar subsistence activity. The traceological analysis has highlighted a stable series of tools for working skins and processing coarse vegetable materials (possibly for basket weaving). Spatula-shaped tools were likely destined for processing mineral materials such as ceramics. Certain typological and technological parallels are found in the Northern Caspian and the Lower Volga regions, but especially in the Southern Caucasian Neolithic (Aratashen-Shulaveri-Shomutepe) traditions possibly originating from those of the Levant and Zagros.
The Agisoft and 3D Studio Max software was used to study the petroglyphs of the Ana Zaga rock shelter, the largest in Gobustan. Stylistic features typical of various periods are described, and radiocarbon estimates for various cultural layers are given. Chronological stages in the evolution of rock art are defined. On the basis of geological data concerning transgressions and regressions of the Caspian Sea, the date of the first human settlement of the Ana Zaga shelter is estimated. The species composition of extinct faunas represented in rock art is assessed. It is concluded that in the Neolithic and Chalcolithic, following the rise of the sea level, the rock shelter became the principal habitat. In the Bronze Age, after the sea level had fallen, the middle and lower terraces became suitable for living. As new landscapes were settled, the themes of petroglyphs changed.
This study outlines the findings of field and laboratory studies by the first Russian archaeological expedition to South America in 2014–2015 and 2017–2018 in collaboration with colleagues from Ecuador and Japan. The project focused on sites of the Archaic (10.8–6.6 ka BP) and Early Formative period (5.5–3.5 ka BP) in the coastal zone of Santa Elena Province, Ecuador. Excavations at Real Alto (Valdivia culture) and Loma Alto (Las Vegas culture) yielded representative archaeological, anthropological, and faunal samples and a large series of AMS dates, providing a basis for a number of novel proposals regarding the chronology and periodization of cultures, their origin, and early pottery-production in South America. Specifically, we have demonstrated that at the very beginning of the Formative period, two early ceramic traditions coexisted—Valdivia and “San Pedro”. We have demonstrated the peculiarity of the “Tropical package” in the stone toolkit, and traced the previously unknown features of the funerary rites of the Las Vegas and Valdivia cultures. Radiocarbon analysis helped to correct the chronology of the late stage of the pre-ceramic Las Vegas culture (8.0–4.8 ka BP) and to estimate the tentative date of the earliest pottery manufacture at 4.8–4.7 ka BP. In conclusion, we outline the top priorities and prospects of Russian archaeological studies on the Pacific coast of South America, underscoring the importance of international cooperation.
THE METAL AGES AND MEDIEVAL PERIOD
This study attempts to elaborate a chronology of rock art in the Russian and Mongolian part of the Altai Mountains, from the Paleolithic to the Late Middle Ages. We focus on the style and themes of rock art and on petroglyphic palimpsests. The earliest representations date to the Upper Paleolithic. On certain palimpsests, images of horses in the Kalguty style are overlaid by Bronze Age petroglyphs. The key challenge is to identify Neolithic petroglyphs. Among the huge number of Bronze Age representations, some follow the traditions peculiar to the Afanasyevo and Chemurchek cultures. The key feature of the latter is so-called “Chemurchek anthropomorphs”. Bronze Age petroglyphs, representing animals, humans, weapons, wheeled vehicles, etc., are chronologically and culturally diverse and must be subdivided respectively. Early Iron Age ones require attribution to either the initial stage or to the mid-1st millennium BC. We discuss the difficulties of analyzing rock art of the Xiongnu-Sarmatian age, the expressive Turkic style, that of the early medieval rock art, and recent petroglyphs of the southern Russian Altai.
The study focuses on the origin and survival of the so-called lobed ware in the Far East. The term refers to vessels decorated with shallow vertical grooves, less often with deep, wide dents, either on the most convex part of the body or on the entire surface. Some vessels are covered with groups of vertical carved lines or burnished, less often painted bands imitating lobulation. Such ceramics are especially frequent at sites of the Jurchen era (7th–13th centuries) in the Amur basin. They are also found in Primorye, northeastern China, and in adjacent territories. The study of various sources shows that the lobed ware was made on the Lower Amur as early as the Neolithic (5th to late 2nd millennia BC), with the earliest samples relating to the Kondon culture. Typical lobed ceramics were also made by people of the Malyshevo and Voznesenovskoye cultures. It is hypothesized that the Jurchen-Bohai pottery, including the lobed ware, was directly influenced by Korean traditions of the first two or three quarters of the 1st millennium AD. Given the distinctness of the tradition, its reminiscences in the Amur region can be traced back to the Neolithic.
This article describes Early Metal Age wooden paddles from the Gorbunovo peat bog, kept by the Nizhny Tagil Museum-Reserve of Mining and Metallurgy in the Urals. Their morphology and manufacturing technology are analyzed. The archaeological context and new AMS-dates are introduced. This sample of early wooden paddles is the largest and the most representative in the world. The specimens are very standardized with regard to general proportions, shape of the blade and handle, and decoration of the handle. A distinctive feature of this sample is that the handle of certain specimens is composite. A comprehensive traceological and technological analysis of the paddles has revealed several aspects of their manufacture, and xylotomy has provided information about the species of wood (pine, cedar, and spruce). On the basis of the processing traces, a tentative toolkit was reconstructed. The paddles generally fall in two categories: most are one-piece, and a few are composite. During the Early Metal Age, woodworking was probably a traditional craft in the Trans-Urals, showing a number of customary techniques.
On the occasion of the 60th anniversary of the first excavations at Poltse I
The study addresses the spatial arrangement of features at Poltse I—a Poltse culture settlement near the village of Kukelevo. An analysis of past scholarship reveals the sources of the modern understanding of the geographic and topographic location of the site and of its present condition. Although Poltse I and Poltse II, which is located nearby, were damaged by plowing in 1968, it is possible to continue excavations and obtain new information. On the basis of published materials, field plans in the archives, and artifacts at the SB RAS Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography, the first complete plan of excavations at Poltse I has been prepared, showing the arrangement of dwellings. Certain features of their design are described. Ceramic vessels found in each of the ten dwellings are listed. The vessels were placed along the perimeter of the interior, leaving free space around the central hearth and a passage to the exit. Most were concentrated in six dwellings. Only a few of them were used in everyday life, while most could have been destined for trade and barter. The abundance of ceramics (965 specimens and numerous separate fragments) makes Poltse I a key source for information on pottery manufacture, subsistence, and cultural ties. So far, it is impossible to say whether the vessels were manufactured in situ or imported.
A fragment of an amphora found in the Kruglaya Bay near Sevastopol was filled with an unknown brown substance with a strong smell of tar. On the vessel’s neck, there is a round stamp ~30 mm in diameter, depicting the bust of an emperor encircled by an inscription. It resembles stamps on amphorae made in Alexandria and the Geronisos Island. The inscription reads, “επί Πτολεμαίου επάρχου”. The gas chromatography–mass spectrometry analysis revealed dehydroabietic acid, methyl dehydroabietate, norabietatrienes, retene, and other phenanthrene derivatives, suggesting that the substance resulted from dry distillation of wood of the Pinaceae family. The headspace analysis yielded components of turpentine oil such as α-pinene, camphene, limonene, cymenes, and others terpenes. To establish the sample’s origin, the amphora’s content was compared with modern pinewood tar obtained by the traditional method. Given nearly identical chromatogram profiles of the amphora’s contents and of tar in areas relating to resin acids, similar values of peak areas of biomarker components, and the presence of turpentine oil components in the sample, it is highly probable that the amphora indeed contained tar.
The study explores the reasons behind the relocation of the construction site for Fort Abakan from the mouth of the Abakan River, as initially planned, to the right bank of the Yenisei River, between two mountains, Unyuk and Turan. The shift of sand ridges, damming these rivers and changing their beds, is examined, and the locations of the projected forts are described. Written sources suggest that the Abakan and Yenisei beds as related systems changed their positions simultaneously, likely between 1691 and 1697 and definitely no earlier than 700–400 BC. Modern hydrological data suggest that processes that occurred in the region in the Early Modern Age were essentially like those that occurred in the Early Iron Age. The earlier date of the Abakan bed’s change is evidenced by the destruction of the 1st millennium BC Tagar sites near Sartykov village on the Abakan. At present, the Yenisei makes an abrupt eastward turn in that place, following the general direction of rivers in the region. D.A. Klements’s idea that after leaving the Western Sayan canyon, the Yenisei had flowed westwards is rejected. The change of location for the prospective fort was caused by the evolution of riverine systems of Western Siberia, specifically by the shift in the Abakan bed.
ETHNOLOGY
Using a structural-semiotic approach together with a comparative historical one, and based on ethnographic, lexical, and folklore sources, this study focuses on the raven and the crow as characters in Buryat mythology. Buryat terms for these birds are of Mongolian origin. Folk beliefs concerning the raven are more elaborate than those concerning the crow. The image of the raven is ambiguous, whereas the crow is an unambiguously negative character. The analysis of vocabulary and of the minor genres of folklore shows that Buryats paid attention to the various zoological features of these birds: plumage color and voice in the crow; plumage color, size, beak, flight duration, collectivism, emotionality in expressing joy and greed in the raven. The essence of both birds of prey was believed to be impure. The raven symbolized heaven, spring, vigilance, war, masculinity, and rancor. Being intelligent and independent, the raven was the Buddhist deity’s aide. Unlike the crow, the raven was patronized by evil spirits and other demonic characters. The crow was a feminine character, a symbol of sky, winter, water, bloodlust, and rumor. Both birds were associated with shape-shifting. The Buryat views, then, combined specifically ethnic and universal ideas about corvids.
This study addresses the structure of cemeteries and types of tombstones in the funerary tradition of the Russian Priestless Old Believers (known as Bespopovtsy) living in the Ust-Tsilma District of the Komi Republic. For the first time, a description of their graveyards, known as “mogilniki”, or “mogily”, is provided, and their history and preservation are outlined. Traditional beliefs concerning cemeteries and their arrangement are cited. The symbolism of the forms of tomb structures, reproducing not only canonical prescriptions and requirements, but also certain pre-Christian beliefs, is analyzed in detail. Folk terms relating to the dead and the afterlife are included. The degree and nature of post-revolutionary transformations, profoundly affecting the foundations of the Old Believers’culture, are explored. Despite the attempts to preserve traditions, modern lifestyles took root in the 1960s and 1970s. Elements of local specificity in funerary rites have nonetheless survived and can be seen in the symbolism of tombstones, synthesizing Christian and pre-Christian traditions. Findings of ethnographic, linguistic, and archival studies are presented.
ANTHROPOLOGY AND PALEOGENETICS
Here, we present the earliest case of surgical treatment of mandibular permanent molars known in Northern Eurasia. It concerns an aged woman buried at a Mesolithic cemetery on the Yuzhny Oleniy Ostrov (Island) in Lake Onega, southern Karelia, 8250–8050 cal BP. Our objective was to reconstruct the technology of surgical intervention, and to diagnose and describe the underlying condition. To do this, we carried out an examination of teeth and bone tissues of the upper and lower jaws and a traceological analysis of identified lesions. As we found, in the last few months of her life, the woman underwent several dental operations, including the extraction of the lower left third molar and, in a stepwise fashion, of fragments of the distal part of crown and lingual part of the distal root of the lower right first molar. The first operation was successful—the woman survived for at least two months after it had been performed. The second operation was also successfully performed at least two months before death, likely immediately after the trauma. The mesial part of the crown was removed just before death. No ancient cases where fragments of an injured tooth were removed are known to us. The removal of the lower third molar can be compared only with the earliest previously known case, described in a sample from the Pucará de Tilcara fortress in Northern Argentina (15th–16th centuries AD). Indications for surgery partly coincide in both cases, and include complications of apical periodontitis and the development of osteomyelitis. However, the technology of surgery and its logistics are different.
The origin of the Andronovo population is explored using a statistical rather than typological approach. Four questions are raised. Which Eastern European populations of the Middle Bronze and the transition to the Late Bronze Age had taken part in Andronovo origins? What was the contribution of the southern groups? What was the role of the autochthonous Siberian substratum? What was the population background of the dichotomy between two major Andronovo cultural traditions, Fedorovka and Alakul? To address these questions, measurements of 12 male Andronovo cranial samples (nine relating to Fedorovka and three to Alakul) and 85 male cranial samples from Eastern Europe, Siberia, Kazakhstan, Southwestern Central Asia, Southern Caucasus, and the Near East were subjected to canonical variate analysis, and minimum spanning trees were constructed. The results suggest that the most likely ancestors of Andronovans were Late Catacomb tribes of Northern Caucasus, people of Poltavka, Sintashta, and those associated with the Abashevo-Sintashta horizon. While no direct parallels with Southern Caucasian, Southwestern Central Asian or Near Eastern populations were found among Andronovo groups, some of them could have inherited the southern component from either the Abashevo or the Catacomb people. In the former case, one should postulate a gradient: Fatyanovo → Balanovo → Abashevo → Sintashta → Petrovka → Andronovo; in the latter case, the variation within Andronovo is directly derivable from that among the Catacomb populations. Andronovo groups displaying an autochthonous Siberian tendency demonstrate various degrees of “mutual assimilation” between immigrants and pre-Mongoloid natives. Differences between the Fedorovka and Alakul samples are significant but very small. A special role of Petrovka in the origin of Alakul is not supported by the analysis.