One of the key problems of modern science is the origin of anatomically modern humans and their dispersal across the planet.

   Skeletal, archaeological, and genetic studies suggest that early modern man originated in Africa no later than 200–150 ka BP and possibly earlier, given the 300 ka old fossils from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco. Having departed from Africa, members of the H. sapiens species began to populate Eurasia 70–60 ka BP. Some experts argue that this dispersal resulted in the displacement of aboriginal groups, whereas others believe that partial hybridization was involved. The previous article published in this journal (2025, vol. 3) addressed the origin of anatomically modern humans in China. The present study, continuing it, discusses a tentative scenario of H. erectus evolving into H. sapiens in the territory adjoining China—Southeast Asia.

   A model of seasonal cycles in the subsistence strategy of Middle and Upper Pleistocene humans in and around Denisova Cave, the Anuy River valley, northwestern Altai, is proposed. On the basis of the year-round monitoring of temperature changes in the cave and around it, certain regularities of circadian and seasonal fluctuations are evaluated. Findings suggest that the climatic situation in winter was more comfortable in the cave than in the Anuy valley, whereas in summer the opposite was true. Faunal data in the cave indicate competition between Paleolithic humans and large carnivores. The main rivals at the early stage were bears, which used the karst cave for their dens in winter. As human activities intensified, hyenas, who needed the cave for breeding in spring and summer, became the principal competitors (judging by the abundance of bones and coprolites), and their relationship with humans varied (alternating or seasonal) over many years. Findings suggest that Paleolithic humans lived in the cave mostly in autumn and winter, shifting to nearby open-air camps in spring and summer. The use of camps on stepped slopes in the extensions of the valley provided much better conditions for hunting.

   This article explores cultural ties between Mesopotamia, Elam, and Southern Caucasus, focusing on the architectural tradition of stepped temples (ziggurats). Shrines in Azerbaijan are compared with those in Mesopotamia (Ubaid, Sumer, III Dynasty of Ur) and Elam (southwestern Iran, Khuzestan). A typological and chronological classification of architectural forms is proposed; parallels in the construction, decoration, and function of shrines are analyzed.

   Special attention is paid to the possible routes whereby cultural traditions were transmitted by means of trade and the diffusion of ideas.

   One example is the infl uence of Mesopotamian architectural forms on the medieval shrines of Azerbaijan. The economic background of cultural transmission between those regions is assessed. We conclude that further comparative studies in the Near East and Southern Caucasus are needed to specify the nature of these ties.

   We present the results of comparing archaeological observations and radiocarbon dating of materials from the Bronze Age settlement Vengerovo-2, Novosibirsk Region – the largest excavated site of the Krotovo culture, with ten dwellings and an extensive space between them. The structure of the site, the architectural uniformity of the dwellings, the stratigraphy and topography, the distribution of artifacts, the homogeneity of the ceramic assemblage, and the repaired walls and fence surrounding the village suggest that the settlement functioned for a short time. A large series of samples was subjected to radiocarbon analysis with Bayesian modeling. The earliest construction date is estimated on the basis of charcoal remains from burned structures (19 samples); and occupation duration, from animal bone samples from undisturbed utility features such as bronze-casting areas and storage pits inside dwellings (28 samples). We also used charcoal from central hearths (4 samples). We conclude that Krotovo people led an intense life in the village for no more than two centuries, from 2000 to 1800 BC, which is consistent with ethnographic evidence about the duration of life at permanent villages.

   This article presents the results of a multidisciplinary analysis of materials from an atypical burial beneath mound 6 at Pyatiletka-1 in the Novosibirsk Region. A complete description of the earth-and-timber structure above the burial chamber and of the chamber itself is provided. The deceased person’s position is described. Results of scientific analyses are outlined. Clay vessels were tempered with grog, and the clay was likely mined near Lake Krugloye. The analysis of samples of wood from the funerary structure shows that its parts were made of birch. Four radiocarbon dates fall within a narrow range: 1411–1404 BC. Craniometric analysis of the preserved part of the cranium reveals similarities with Irmen groups and certain representatives of the early stages of the Late Bronze Age in the Minusinsk Basin. In terms of rite, the burial is markedly different from those of other Late Bronze Age cultures in the region, including the Irmen, Korchazhka, and Yelovka cultures. The closest parallels are found among the materials of the first (Karasuk) stage of the Late Bronze Age in the Minusinsk Basin. It is hypothesized that the atypical burial evidences a wave (or waves) of eastward migration, giving rise to the first stage of the Late Bronze Age in the area.

   This study continues a series of publications dealing with the findings of the 2021 excavation season at a cemetery near the Uytag mountain, Republic of Khakassia. Here, we describe an excellently preserved composite apotropaic ornament from vault 5 in Tagar mound 5 at Uytag-3. The funerary rite is typical of the Late Saragash stage. Only two female skeletons had been preserved (one of them partly) on the wooden floor of the log structure. Under one of the skeletons, a composite ornament was found, consisting of golden hemispheric plaques and biconical beads, glass polychrome conical and disc-shaped beads, steatite pendants and hemispheric plaques, a golden plaque with an embossed figure of a carnivore, a lynx claw wrapped in gold foil, a comb-hairpin, and a gilded bronze deer plaque. The analysis suggests that all these belonged to an apotropaic set, specially destined for the funerary rite. We propose its reconstruction and describe the techniques whereby separate details were manufactured. The results of a Raman spectroscopy analysis of the glass point to a region where the set, which has no exact Tagar matches, was made.

   This article describes a rare bronze situla, found near the Verbovka River northwest of Stavropol, and owned by the Prozritelev and Prave Stavropol State Museum-Reserve. The vessel has a turnip-shaped body, a wide mouth, and a truncated-conical base. The body is modeled from four trapezoidal bronze sheets joined by vertical rows of rivets with inward-positioned heads. Upper parts of unusual cast handles are sculptured as dog muzzles. For the first time, the use of a ring made from iron wire and strengthening the rim is described. Finds of riveted cauldrons with zoomorphic and loop-shaped handles, as well as forged situlae and vessels, made by hammering bronze (or copper) sheets on wooden matrices, with mounts on handles, are mapped. On the basis of technological features, three types of situlae are described: (I) riveted; (II) forged; and (III) hammered on wooden matrices. The new situla belongs to the first type. Like two forged situlae from the Krasnoye Znamya cemetery, it was presumably manufactured at some Koban site on the Stavropol Plateau.

   The study of 17 forts in the forest-steppe zone of Western Siberia shows that early medieval defensive structures included escarps, 1.0–1.5 m high earthen ramparts, simple fences and ditches 3.0–3.5 m wide and 1.0–1.5 m deep. Overall, this indicates a decline of fortification traditions as compared to the Early Iron Ages. Smaller houses, lower mounds, and poorer funerary offerings during the historical Migration Period attest to a more primitive lifestyle. The decline was caused by the dominance of conquerors from the north. From 500 to 800 AD, this tendency still prevailed in the Irtysh basin because of the intrusion of small groups of hunters and gatherers. On the contrary, in the Tobol and Ishim area, defensive structures became more sophisticated and included wooden wall fortifi cations, watch and gate towers, underground passages, and wood-and-earth structures, which were 1.5–2 times larger. The rise of fortifi cations in westernmost Siberia was caused by the development of an agrarian economy, by long-distance trade, specifically with people of the Kama region and Central Asia, and by greater social and economic stratifi cation. At the same time, standards of fortification size and complexity had not yet been developed, and the key factor affecting the layout was the topography of the terrain. In 700–900 AD, small forts had strong walls only in “central” and specialized settlements.

   The Western Himalayan region of Zangskar is strategically located at the crossroads of Central Asian trade routes. For thousands of years, it served as a vibrant cultural meeting point. This interaction, fueled by the movement of traders, pilgrims, and migrants, greatly infl uenced its unique cultural landscape. A striking record of these exchanges can be seen on the valley’s rocks, which feature a large collection of petroglyphs and Buddhist engravings. These enduring art forms act as tangible records, showcasing how artistic styles, symbols, and religious images were shared and blended over long distances and through various cultures in these high-altitude landscapes. The paper presents signifi cant new findings from recent systematic fieldwork in the Zangskar Valley. The research documents a variety of sites, petroglyphs, and engravings that portray animals like ibex and deer, hunting scenes, and geometric symbols. It also covers historical Buddhist carvings that depict stupas, deities and intricate devotional scenes. The study focuses on detailed stylistic and thematic comparisons with similar rock art traditions found across Central Asia and Tibet. By establishing these connections and identifying shared themes, and symbolic elements, the paper aims to create a relative chronological framework for Zangskar’s rock art. This framework will help trace artistic developments and cultural influences along trade routes, and highlight the cultural exchanges that took place in this remote Himalayan valley over centuries.

   Multidisciplinary studies at the Idnakar (Soldyrskoye I) fortified settlement included remote sensing for the assessment of site boundaries and the evaluation of structure and thickness of the occupation layer, which is partly destroyed by plowing and erosion. Multispectral survey is shown to be more effective in locating preserved bases of defensive structures. Plant features reveal differences between the occupation layer within the site and the humified horizon outside it. Thermal imaging provides more accurate estimates of thickness and composition of the occupation layer in different areas of the site. In the inner (earliest) part, which was mainly a residential area, it is mostly thick (over 0.6 m). In the area adjoining the destroyed fortifications, the occupation layer includes a considerable amount of clay. In the central part of the fortifi ed settlement, areas of two types were revealed: thick layers containing much clay from bedrock and a thin occupation horizon. Initially, this was an economic and utility zone, and eventually it became a partly residential and partly utility area. In the area outside the fortified settlement, which at the final stage was destined for household and manufacturing activities, the layer is thin, and the bedrock is situated immediately beneath the turf. We conclude that fi ndings at Idnakar indicate the efficiency of thermal imaging in archaeological prospection based on soil characteristics.

   We describe representations of mounted warriors on ritual artifacts (silver plates and a leather pouch), used in ritual practices of the Khanty on the Lower Ob, and propose their chronological attribution and interpretation. A comparative analysis reveals the prototypes and dates of these representations and their connection with late 18^th to early 19^th century decorative traditions. Silver saucers with figures of horsemen wearing helmets were made at P. T. Bryukhanov’s workshop in Tobolsk. This military headgear resembles leather helmets of the Tarleton type with longitudinal fur crests, popular during a rather short period from the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783) to the Napoleonic Wars (1795–1815). We provide a detailed description of the leather pouch with figures of a hussar and his horse (replicating an unknown engraving from the first quarter of the 19^th century), and a fragment of Konstantin Batyushkov’s poem “The Farewell”, whose motifs and popularity were closely related to 1813–1814 foreign campaigns by the Russian army. We conclude that representations on artifacts manufactured for the Voguls and Ostyaks were rather realistic, and reproduced characteristic details of that time.

   Using historical, ethnographic, and semiotic approaches, this study analyzes the dwelling (primarily the yurt—ib) as a central element in Khakas cultural space. In the traditional worldview, the house is not merely a physical shelter but a complex sociocultural and sacred construct, a microcosm that models the universe. The key binary opposition between the two worlds—“our own (safe, predictable, cultural) versus alien (dangerous, wild)”—is analyzed in detail. The boundary between them is the threshold and the door of the house, facing eastwards. The interior of the yurt has undergone a strict semiotic structuring. The existence of sex (male versus female halves) and status dichotomy (honorary tör zone versus non-privileged one at the entrance) is confirmed, regulating not just the placement of people and objects but also behavioral norms and ritual practices, such as the burial of the afterbirth. The sacred hierarchy of the dwelling’s loci is demonstrated: places with a special status were the hearth (symbolic center of the house and family), the smoke hole (tünük—a channel of communication with the celestial world), and the threshold (the boundary between the domestic and the alien space, the abode of the patron spirit). The semantic significance of all elements of the dwelling is demonstrated, as evidenced by numerous prohibitions, prescriptions, and rituals (domestic, wedding, funerary) associated with the door, the threshold, and the hearth. The house was conceived as the source and repository of the clan’s vital force (khuyakh), and its well-being directly depended on maintaining intra-family harmony and observing ritual norms. Thus, using Khakas cultural material, this study reveals an intrinsic connection between the architectonics of the dwelling, social organization, mythological worldview, and the system of subsistence strategies, wherein the house served as the primary instrument for “mastering” and “humanizing” the space.

   This article traces the development of the horseback riding tradition of Kazakhstan until the present time. A systematic assessment of a wide range of ideas about the role of the horse in the life of people is provided. Based on the authors’ field materials, the study uses also linguistic, folklore, and ethnographic data, which help to evaluate the place of the horse in rites of the Kazakh lifecycle, largerly determining the upbringing of a rider. In the Kazakh traditional socio-normative culture, horses are an indicator of a person’s status, wealth, and dignity. In present-day Kazakhstan, the culture of horseback riding has undergone modernization and is being creatively reinterpreted. Horse-breeding has become incorporated into the economy of conspicuous consumption, and is manifested in the development of equestrian sports and tourism, increased interest in horseback riding, and a revival of festivals tied with horseracing and the culture of the traditional drink kumis. The high status of the horseback riding culture in Kazakhstan is evidenced by its inclusion into the UNESCO Representative World Heritage List. The current study shows the central role of the horse among the cultural and ideological values of modern Kazakhs. The Kazakh worldview still includes the idea of the intrinsic connection between the horse and man.

   Our previous analysis of the Andronovo cranial samples from Siberia was undertaken in the early 2000^s. Since then, the cultural and chronological attribution of a number of Siberian sites has been revised, new cranial samples of the first half of the 2^nd millennium BC from the southern Urals, the Volga-Ural area, and Kazakhstan have been published, large-scale reconstructions of population processes involving Andronovo and Andronoid populations have been carried out with the use of multivariate statistics, and results of genomic studies have appeared. In the context of the new information, the origin of morphologically western trait combinations associated with the Fedorovka and Alakul traditions can be revised. Here, a new database, formed from individual craniometric data, adapted to modern archaeological knowledge, is used. Comparative data relevant to the formation of local Andronovo groups, come from the Volga-Ural area, southern Urals, Kazakhstan, Central Asia, and Siberia. The structure of the intragroup variation does not indicate possible eastern admixture throughout the Andronovo distribution range. The multiple discriminant analysis suggests that the Alakul and Fedorovka traditions were caused by two relatively independent migrations, possibly from the West Asia. The Fedorovka population of the Altai may have included an Alakul component from the southern Urals, northern and western Kazakhstan. The Fedorovka people of Kazakhstan did not contribute to the origin of Siberian Andronovans, who had descended from the principal migration wave under the effect of isolation. Andronovo people of the Baraba forest-steppe and the Tom stretch of the Ob were basically Siberian natives with minor western admixture.