The emergence of anatomically modern humans was a pivotal event in evolution. It has been dealt with in hundreds of books and an infi nite number of articles. I have been tackling this problem for more than half a century, especially in the last 15–20 years, after the results of sequencing Neanderthal and Denisovan DNA had become available. My conclusions will be outlined in two articles. The fi rst one focuses on the evolution of H. erectus in Africa, culminating in the emergence of early Homo sapiens , while in the second one the emergence of H. s. neanderthalensis in Europe and H. s. denisovensis in Central Asia, and the convergent evolution of local H. erectus populations toward H. sapiens in East and Southeast Asia will be examined. Homo sapiens sapiens originated in the process of the dispersal of anatomically modern humans from Africa 60–30 thousand years ago and their admixture with H. s. neanderthalensis in Europe, Denisovans (the informal term is Homo s. denisovensis ) in Central Asia, and early modern humans, informally termed Homo s. orienthalensis , who had originated in China and Southeast Asia.

Our studies of the relationship between prehistoric humans and their environment included the taphocenotic analysis of large mammal faunas from key Paleolithic sites in the upper Anui River basin, northwestern Altai. Faunal assemblages from the Denisova, Kaminnaya, and Okladnikov caves and the Ust-Karakol open-air site were examined. Their stratigraphic sequences span a wide chronological interval from 300 to 10 ka BP. To assess the structure of animal resources available to prehistoric humans, quantitative ratios of 17 taxa or groups of taxa were analyzed, representing carnivores (Carnivora), proboscideans (Proboscidea), odd-toed ungulates (Perissodactyla), and artiodactyls (Artiodactyla). The distribution of bones of large herbivorous mammals suggests that the primary bioresources for the earliest humans in the Anui basin were Siberian ibex, argali, bison, and horses. Other preferably hunted mammals were antelopes (dzeren and saiga), as well as deer (red and roe deer). Woolly rhinoceros was hunted less frequently. The main competitors of Paleolithic humans in consuming animal bioresources were large predators (hyena and wolf), and the main rivals in cave shelters were bears and hyenas.

We introduce finds from burial 3 at Khuzhir-Nuge-9 in the Olkhon area. Data on the location, above-ground burial structure (oval pavement ~3.5 m in diameter), grave (oval, 37 cm deep pit), funerary rite (inhumation on the right side with flexed legs, head oriented toward the north, burial strewn with ocher), and grave goods are provided. Clusters of tools and separate stone and bone artifacts, found in different parts of the grave, are described. Typical items include a robust bone tool, an end-scraper, microblades, and retouched and unretouched flakes made from jasper, chalcedony, flint, etc. The most expressive find is a miniature bait made from chert and shaped like a fish. The distribution area of stone figurines of fish in the Baikal area is outlined, their dates are provided, and opinions about their function are cited. Experts view these peculiar items as fishing baits. On the basis of the radiocarbon date of the burial and other sites on Lake Baikal shore, we conclude that such baits were used in this area from the Early Neolithic to the Middle Neolithic, i.e., in the 6th and 5th millennia BC.

We describe a glass intaglio with an impressed image, excavated by the International Russian-Abkhazian Archaeological Expedition from the Russian Academy of Sciences Institute of Archaeology and the Academy of Sciences of Abkhazia Institute for the Humanities at the Markula settlement in 2022. The archaeological context and iconography of the image are described. The standing fi gure in the center is interpreted as that of Harpocrates (Zeus Kasios) wearing the hemhem crown, holding a pomegranate in his right hand. In his left hand, there is a branch, for which a child or pygmy reaches. Regarding the origin of this cult, some experts believe that during the Ptolemaic era, Zeus Kasios was a Near Eastern reflex of the Greek Zeus, identified with Baal-Zaphon. The iconographic type described in this study, also known as Harpocrates of Pelusia, was related to new Egyptian interpretations. The god’s name—Harpocrates, or Zeus Kasios—refl ects the blend of his functions as a solar deity and patron of seafarers with his prophetic gift, highlighting his youthful appearance known from graphic and written sources. The closest parallels are found among engraved gems and coins of the 3rd century AD. As compared to them, the image on the Markula intaglio is mirrored, making it impossible to establish the production technique with certainty. Possibly, an impression was made on softened glass with a ceramic or metal mold, copying the image on a currently unknown gem. After cooling, the image’s details were fi nished using cold engraving. The analysis of the glass’s composition suggests that the intaglio was made at an Egyptian workshop. The intaglio likely arrived in the region via trade contacts or with a Roman legionary. It is concluded that the discovery of this ornament not merely refl ects the syncretic nature of Roman religion, but also suggests that the local population was familiar with the diversity of the provincial cults of the Roman Empire.

This article describes archaeological artifacts from the necropolises of Chersonesos with regard to their historical and cultural relevance. Based on an extensive sample, the authors classify the principal groups of fi nds, explore the semantics of grave goods, and reconstruct the system of funerary ritual practices within the context of cultural values and the related worldview. Focus is made on the cultural meaning of the most numerous and informative artifacts, the most typical of which are coins, ceramic oil lamps, bronze mirrors, and golden wreaths. Using semiotic and hermeneutic approaches, related images and ideas as parts of the ancient culture are reconstructed. The fi ndings offer insight into the system of beliefs shared by people of the Northern Pontic from 400 BC to 300 AD.

This study provides archaeological support for written evidence on Jurchen road stations along highways connecting towns, including those in Primorye. The Eastern Xia state used the advanced Jin system of land and water routes between the southern and northern parts of the country. Capital cities, too, had to be connected by roads. The location of the Southern and Upper capitals of the state, identifi ed with the Chengzihoushancheng and Kaiyuan settlements, respectively, had been known, but until recently it had been impossible to locate the road connecting them. Findings of excavations at the Jurchen settlement of Olenevod, with the identifi cation of topographic features and parallels among North Korean and Chinese sites, suggest that it was a road station on the highway between capital cities. Structural characteristics of administrative and residential buildings are described, and new features in tile and stucco decoration are revealed. For the fi rst time, the spatial structure of a new type of medieval site was reconstructed. The location of the road station on the bank of the Razdolnaya River may be due to the fact that it was built at the transport interchange between riverine and land routes connecting the capital cities of the Eastern Xia state. The characteristic topographic features of the site shed light on the function of small Jurchen settlements located in river valleys. These settlements may provide reference points for reconstructing land routes.

We describe a partially preserved iron shield discovered in the Uybat steppe, Republic of Khakassia, in 2019. Measuring 65 cm in diameter and weighing over 4 kg, it is fl at, rounded, and riveted from 14 identical segmentshaped iron plates. The edge is decorated with a pattern of fi ne serrations. In the central part, the plates are joined by a two-piece boss with a narrow belt-clip located on the inside of the shield. The perimeter of the boss on the front side is decorated with rectangular cutouts and openwork crescents with protrusions. Graphic reconstructions of the outer and inner surfaces of the shield are presented. Variants of its use in combat and marching positions are discussed. The shield was made at one of the Near Eastern workshops. An exact parallel is an iron shield excavated from a medieval settlement of Beshtam-Kala on the Zhana-Darya River, the Aral region, which had been destroyed during the Mongol conquest of northeastern Khorezm in the early 1200s. We propose that the Uybat specimen was used during the feud between Genghis Khan’s ancestors, in which peoples of the Altai-Sayan belonging to the Great Khan’s ulus were embroiled. Its owner could have been a Kyrgyz or Mongolian warrior fi ghting in Tutuha’s army, which in 1293 conquered all the “Five Tribes” of the Yenisei Kyrgyz. The fi nd evidences political and socio-economic ties between major regions of Central Asia and southern Siberia during the High Middle Ages.

This study, based on our 2024 field data, describes tombstones with Russian inscriptions at the Muslim cemetery Kunti-baba on the southeastern Ustyurt Plateau, Karakalpak Region, Republic of Uzbekistan. Our objective is to view them as part of the history of migrants to the Aral Sea region—Ural Cossack Old Believers. We describe several tombstones without Christian symbols but with Muslim decorative motifs. Their connection with the history of the group is discussed, suggesting that the Cossack colonization of the area gave rise to new ethno-cultural and ethno-confessional interactions. Cases of religious conversion were exceptional. Coexisting with native Karakalpaks and Adai Kazakhs, Ural Cossacks preserved their language, writing, names, and military ranks, which marked their ethnic identity.

This study attempts to reconstruct migration routes to Western Siberia and identify source regions on the basis of analysis of “Cossack” baptismal crosses larger than 52 mm by 48 mm. Their importance stems from the fact that Cossacks played a key role in the colonization of Siberia. The term “Cossack baptismal cross” is known from the notebook of A.P. Serov, a foundry master from Krasnoye Selo—a document used by many experts in sacred pendants. A representative database was compiled to conduct a comparative analysis of the geographic distribution of these items. It includes information on baptismal crosses from the State Catalog of the Russian Federation Museum Fund, as well as staurographic collections from the Novosibirsk, Omsk, and Irkutsk regions. The use of a standardized classifi cation method made it possible to conduct a statistical analysis to determine the geographic distribution of various types of crosses. A trend was identifi ed showing a decrease in typological diversity with increasing distance from the central regions of Russia toward the periphery. Regions identifi ed as sources of migration have been determined. In particular, among the baptismal crosses found at Modern Age cemeteries in Western Siberia, certain types have been identifi ed whose origins are linked to traditional Old Believer centers in Russia and specifi c central regions. In this context, the baptismal cross can be viewed as a confessional marker and a new source for studying migration processes. In terms of dimensions, not a single cross (among more than 1500) matched those described in Serov’s notebook. Apparently, rather than being a universal reference, this document is a sample limited in space and time.

On the basis of tombstones at rural cemeteries Dubrovino, Berdskoye, Chingis, Zavyalovo, and Spirino in the northern Upper Ob region, we address the provincial funerary culture of the late Russian Empire. We collate inscriptions on tombstones with parish registers from archival sources, sometimes identifying the buried persons’ names and their parents’ membership of the clerical estate. Detailed descriptions of tombstones, manufacturing techniques, and decoration are provided, and their typology is proposed. Most rural specimens are marble and resemble urban counterparts in type, decoration, and symbolism. The status of rural tombstones matches that of the respective villages. Most of these are either located on the Old Moscow Highway (Dubrovino), or were economically important on the regional scale, or were situated at river crossings (Berdskoye, Chingis, Spirino). We conclude that tombstones of the Upper Ob are informative with regard to the provincial social structure of the Russian Empire of the 1800s and early 1900. At most cemeteries, tombstones are rare and belong to wealthy members of rural communities.

Sanctuaries of various ranks are one of the means whereby traditional worldview and ritual practices of Ob Ugrians are translated. Especially informative are those situated in contact zones between Mansi and Khanty residence areas such as the one around Lake Balbanty in the Berezovsky District of Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug–Yugra, an area sacred to both the Lyapin Mansi and the Synya Khanty. On the basis of our 2023 survey, we describe two sanctuaries and their history. The fi rst one relates to Mansi mythological characters—the Chokhryn-Oyka deity and the menkv forest spirits. Other northwestern Siberian places devoted to them are briefl y described, too. The second sanctuary is related to the patron of the reindeer-breeders of northern Urals_Kevvur-khu-akem-iki. Its central feature is a large fi r tree with the deity’s mask carved on its trunk. Information about two other places where Kevvur-khu-akem-iki is venerated by the Synya Khanty is provided. The structure of ritual platforms and the way fi gures of patron-spirits are rendered are more suggestive of the Mansi tradition, whose typical features are structures made of wooden statues supported by a horizontal bar, and masks carved on trunks. The revival of the tradition venerating Ugric deities at Lake Balbanty was triggered by a private initiative and supported by governors of the two federal okrugs. Hopefully, those sanctuaries will be preserved, marking the joint ritual practices of two local groups of Ob Ugrians.

New folkloric data collected in Maharashtra, India, have changed our views of the ancient ethnoastronomy of South Asia. Previous reconstructions of beliefs about celestial objects were nearly exclusively based on the comparison of data on Northern and Central Eurasia with those on the New World. Motifs relating to Ursa Major , one of the most important constellations in folk astronomy, are described. An attempt is made to assess the relative age of these beliefs by collating data on Eurasia and America. Four routes whereby people had migrated to the New World are reconstructed, one of these being related to the spread of Algonquin ancestors. Rather than being Paleolithic relicts, parallels between Siberia and India were caused by later northern infl uences on South Asian ethnoastronomy.

The article outlines the results of long-term ethnographic field studies in the Hà Giang Province of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, focusing on the small ethnic group Bo Y, which has retained the foundations of traditional culture. The objective is to assess the Bo Y funerary practices. Original findings bearing on the traditional Bo Y ideas of life and death are introduced. Rituals of animal sacrifice relating to the ancestor cult are described. Despite all the transformations, such rituals remain necessary for regulating social relations, which do not end after the person’s death. Under modern conditions, they acquire a new form while preserving the traditional content—maintaining the continuity between the living and the dead and making social life more harmonious. Bo Y traditions in north Vietnam and southwest China, where the large part of this people lives, are compared. It is concluded that the stability of the Bo Y ritual system contributes to the maintenance of cultural identity, securing the unity and integrity of this small ethnic group.

To clarify biological ties of the Early Iron Age Bulan-Koba people of the Altai Mountains, craniometric analysis of three chronological subgroups was carried out: Ust-Edigan (200 BC to 100 AD), Bely Bom (100–350 AD), and KokPash (350–450 AD). The respective trait combinations could have been affected by contacts with other groups of Asiatic steppe nomads during the 300 BC to 500 AD interval. Morphological differences at the within-group level were evaluated using the t -test and F -test for independent observations. Canonical discriminant analysis was carried out using Scythian-Saka and Xiongnu-Sarmatian Age samples from the Volga-Ural region, Southern Urals, Kazakhstan, Central Asia, and Siberia. Diachronic analysis of the Bulan-Koba group reveals no breaks in biological continuity. During the Xiongnu-Sarmatian Age, people with western Eurasian features migrated to the Altai from other areas of Central Asia. The principal autochthonous trait combination was related to the Southern Eurasian Formation with Caucasoid admixtures from Western Central Asia. Over the entire span of the Bulan-Koba culture, its ties were directed eastward, mainly to Xinjiang, as well as Tuva and Mongolia. In female part of the series, these ties were limited to Xinjiang and Tuva. Minor changes occurred only at the Bely Bom stage, when the autochthonous component prevailed. At the Late Kok-Pash stage, the eastern vector is not traceable anymore. Judging by western trait combinations, ties at that stage were likely with Southern Urals and Trans-Urals.

To assess the origins of the modern Western Siberian populations, measurements of 30 recent male cranial samples from that territory and 56 medieval ones from Siberia, Southwestern Central Asia, Kazakhstan, and the Volga–Ural area were processed using canonical variate analysis, and Mahalanobis distances corrected for sample size were calculated. The distance matrix was subjected to nonmetric multidimensional scaling and cluster analysis. Ties with modern groups are the most evident in people associated with the Srostki culture of northwestern Altai, Ryolka and Ust-Ishim cultures, Mongolian Age dwellers of Baraba, Gorny Altai, and the lower Tom, and the Yenisei Kyrgyz. Biological differentiation in Southern and Western Siberia is related to language—Ugric, Samoyedic, and Turkic speaking groups show signifi cant differences with regard to their cranial characteristics. Ugric samples differ much sharper than do Samoyedic or Turkic ones. Comparison with medieval samples provides no clues as to the origin of Ugrians. The southern Khanty attribution of Ryolka culture is not supported. Various groups of Selkups may have originated from Mongolic Age people of Baraba or from those of Ryolka and Ust-Ishim cultures. The cranial characteristics of Nenets are typologically Southern Siberian rather than Uralic, and they resemble Turks. The difference between northern Samoyeds and Selkups is likely due to a complex composition and wide geographic distribution of the proto-Samoyedic community. Selkup roots of the Tom Tatars and the Eastern Central Asiatic tendency of Beltyr Khakas are revealed, and the Yenisei Kyrgyz roots of Kachi Khakas are demonstrated. In contrast to their linguistic isolation, Kets display no cranial specifi city.